Psychology of Medicine: Allies of World War I

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Allies of World War I

The Entente Powers or Allies (French: Forces de l'Entente / AlliÃ©s; Italian: Alleati; Romanian: Puterile Antantei / AliaÈ›ii; Russian: Ð¡Ð¾ÑŽÐ·Ð½Ð¸ÐºÐ¸, Soyuzniki; Serbian: Ð¡Ð°Ð²ÐµÐ·Ð½Ð¸Ñ†Ð¸, Saveznici) were the countries at war with the Central Powers during World War I. The members of the Triple Entente were the French Republic, the British Empire and the Russian Empire; Italy ended its alliance with the Central Powers and entered the war on the side of the Entente in 1915. Japan was another important member. Belgium, Serbia, Greece, Montenegro, and Romania were secondary members of the Entente.

The United States declared war on Germany in 1917 on the grounds that Germany violated U.S. neutrality by attacking international shipping and because of the Zimmermann Telegram sent to Mexico. The U.S. entered the war as an "associated power", rather than a formal ally of France and the United Kingdom, in order to avoid "foreign entanglements". Although the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria severed relations with the United States, neither declared war.

Although the Dominions and Crown Colonies of the British Empire made significant contributions to the Allied war effort, they did not have independent foreign policies during World War I. Operational control of British Empire forces was in the hands of the five-member British War Cabinet (BWC). However, the Dominion governments controlled recruiting, and did remove personnel from front-line duties as they saw fit.

From early 1917 the BWC was superseded by the Imperial War Cabinet, which had Dominion representation. The Australian Corps and Canadian Corps were placed for the first time under the command of Australian and Canadian Lieutenant Generals John Monash and Arthur Currie, respectively, who reported in turn to British generals. In April 1918, operational control of all Entente forces on the Western Front passed to the new supreme commander, Ferdinand Foch.

The only countries represented in the 1918 armistice which ended combat on the Western Front were Britain, France and Germany.

History

The original alliance opposed to the Central Powers was the Triple Entente, which was formed by three Great European Powers:

Â British Empire
French Republic
Â Russian Empire

The war began with the Austrian attack invasion of Serbia on 28 July 1914, in response to the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The Austrian Empire followed with an attack on the Serbian ally Montenegro on 8 August. On the Western Front, the two neutral States of Belgium and Luxembourg were immediately occupied by German troops as part of the German Schlieffen Plan.

Of the two Low Countries, Luxembourg chose to capitulate, and was viewed as a collaborationist State by the Entente Powers: Luxembourg never became part of the Allies, and only narrowly avoided Belgium's efforts of annexation, at the conclusion of hostilities in 1919. On 23 August Japan joined the Entente, which then counted seven members.. The entrance of the British Empire brought Nepal into the war.

On 23 May 1915, Italy entered the war on the Entente side and declared war on Austria; previously, Italy had been a member of the Triple Alliance but had remained neutral since the beginning of the conflict. In 1916, Montenegro capitulated and left the Entente, and two nations joined, Portugal and Romania.

On 6 April 1917 the United States and its American allies entered the war. Liberia, Siam and Greece also became allies. After the October Revolution, Russia left the alliance and ended formal involvement in the war, by the signing of the treaty of Brest Litovsk in November effectively creating a separate peace with the Central Powers. This was followed by Romanian cessation of hostilities, however the Balkan State declared war on Central Powers again on 10 November 1918. The Russian withdrawal allowed for the final structure of the alliance, which was based on five Great Powers:

French Republic
Â British Empire
Â United States
Â Italy
Â Japan

Major affiliated state combatants

United Kingdom

War justifications

In response to Germany's invasion of neutral Belgium, the United Kingdom declared war on Germany on 4 August 1914. The British Empire held several semi-autonomous dominions that were automatically brought into the war effort as a result of the British declaration of war, including Australia, Canada, Newfoundland, New Zealand, and South Africa.

Colonies and dependencies

In Europe

Gibraltar, Cyprus and Malta were British dependencies in Europe.

In Africa

The UK held several colonies, protectorates, and semi-autonomous dependencies at the time of World War I. In Eastern Africa the East Africa Protectorate, Nyasaland, both Northern and Southern Rhodesia, the Uganda Protectorate, were involved in conflict with German forces in German East Africa. In Western Africa, the colonies of Gold Coast and Nigeria were involved in military actions against German forces from Togoland and Kamerun. In Southwestern Africa, the semi-autonomous dominion of South Africa was involved in military actions against German forces in German South-West Africa.

In North America

Canada and Newfoundland were two semi-autonomous dominions during the war that made major military contributions to the British war effort.

Other British dependent territories in the Americas included: British Honduras, the Falkland Islands, British Guiana, and Jamaica.

In Asia

The UK held large possessions in Asia, including the British Raj that were an assortment of British imperial authorities in the territory then defined as India.

Other British territories at the time included: British Malaya â€" referring to several Malay states under British control as a result of the Straits Settlements; North Borneo; and Hong Kong.

In Oceania

Australia and New Zealand were two semi-autonomous dominions of the UK in Oceania during the war.

Russia

In response to Austria-Hungary's invasion of Serbia in 1914, Russian government officials denounced the Austro-Hungarian invasion as an "ignoble war" on a "weak country". Russian government official NikolaÄ N. Shebeko stated: "the attack on Serbia by a powerful empire such as Austria, supposedly in order to defend its existence, cannot be understood by anyone in my country; it has been considered simply as a means of delivering a death-blow to Serbia." Russia held close diplomatic relations with Serbia, and Russian foreign minister Sergey Sazonov suspected the events were a conspiracy between Austria-Hungary and Germany to expel Russian influence in the Balkans. On 30 July 1914, Russia enacted a general mobilization. The day after general mobilization was enacted, Austria-Hungary's ally Germany declared war on Russia prior to expected Russian intervention against Austria-Hungary.

Following a raid by Ottoman warships on the Russian port of Odessa, Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire in November 1914.

France

After Germany declared war on Russia, France with its alliance with Russia prepared a general mobilization in expectation of war. On 3 August 1914, Germany declared war on France.

Japan

Japan declared war on Germany after it did not accept an ultimatum sent by Japan to Germany, demanding that Germany extinguish its title to the Kiautschou Bay concession and restore that territory to China. The Japanese government appealed to the Japanese public that Japan was not merely entering a "European War" on behalf of European powers, but that Japan was fighting on behalf of Asians against a belligerent European power, Germany, that Japan identified as the "source of evil in the Far East". Thus as a result of this, Japan was following through with the Anglo-Japanese Alliance.

Italy

Italy had been a member of the Triple Alliance alongside Germany and Austria-Hungary since the 1880s, however the Triple Alliance stipulated that all parties must be consulted in the event of one country engaging in war and Italy was not informed of this. As such Italy claimed that it was not obligated to join their war effort. Italy's relations with Germany and Austria-Hungary in contrast to the Allies were additionally affected by the fact that in 1913, Britain supplied Italy with 90 percent of its annual imports of coal. The war effort of the Central Powers meant that Germany and Austria-Hungary were using their coal supplies for the war, and little was available to be exported to Italy. Italy initially attempted to pursue neutrality from 1914 to 1915.

After diplomatic negotiations, Britain and France convinced Italy to join the war effort with promises that Italy would gain favourable territorial concessions from the Central Powers, including Italian-populated territories of Austria-Hungary. Italy ordered mobilization on 22 May 1915, and issued an ultimatum to Austria-Hungary, and then declared war on Austria-Hungary, though it did not declare war on Germany.

Minor affiliated state combatants

Belgium

Belgium had declared its neutrality when the war began, but Germany disregarded Belgium's neutrality and invaded the country in order to launch an offensive against the French capital of Paris. As a result Belgium became a member of the Allies.

Brazil

Brazil entered the war in 1917 after the United States intervened on the basis of Germany's unrestricted submarine warfare sinking its merchant ships, which Brazil also cited as a reason to enter the war fighting against Germany and the Central Powers.

Montenegro

Montenegro had very close cultural and political connections with Serbia and had cooperated with Serbia in the Balkan Wars of 1912â€"1913. Montenegro joined the war against Austria-Hungary.

Nejd and Hasa

The Emirate of Nejd and Hasa agreed to enter the war as an ally of Britain in the Treaty of Darin on December 26, 1915.

Serbia

Serbia was invaded by Austria-Hungary after Austria-Hungary placed a stringent ultimatum to the Serbian government demanding full compliance to an Austro-Hungarian investigation of complicity by the Serbian government in the assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand. Serbia agreed to most of Austria-Hungary's demands but because it did not fully comply, Austria-Hungary invaded.

Serbia had the diplomatic support of Russia, and both Serbia and Russia resented Austria-Hungary's absorption of Bosnia and Herzegovina that held a substantial Serb population. Serbia had expanded in size through its actions in the Balkan Wars of 1912â€"1913 when the Ottoman Empire's control in the Balkans collapsed.

During the war, Serbia justified the war as being the result of Austro-Hungarian imperialism towards Serbs and South Slavs, Serbia cooperated with Yugoslavists including the Yugoslav Committee who sought pan-South-Slav unification, particularly through liberating South Slavs from Austria-Hungary. In the Corfu Declaration in 1917, the Serbian government officially declared its intention to form a state of Yugoslavia.

The first two allied victories in the war were won by the Serbian army, on the mountains of Cer and Kolubara, in western Serbia. The Austro-Hungarian army was expelled from the country, suffering heavy losses. Serbia suffered great losses during the war, almost 50% of all men and around 30% of its entire population were killed. On July 28, 1918, the Serbian flag was raised at American public buildings, including the White House, on the order of President Woodrow Wilson as a sign of recognition for Serbia's resistance against the Central Powers.

Major co-belligerent state combatants

United States

The United States declared war on Germany in 1917 on the grounds that Germany violated U.S. neutrality by attacking international shipping with its unrestricted submarine warfare campaign. The U.S. entered the war as an "associated power," rather than a formal ally of France and the United Kingdom, in order to avoid "foreign entanglements." Although the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria severed relations with the United States, neither declared war.

Non-state combatants

Four non-state combatants, which voluntarily fought with the Allies and seceded from the constituent states of the Central Powers at the end of the war, were allowed to participate as winning nations to the peace treaties:

Polish Legions
Czechoslovak Legions: armed by France, Italy and Russia
Â The Hejaz: armed by Britain in Arabia
Armenians: seceded from Russia and fought against Ottoman Empire.

Leaders

France

Raymond PoincarÃ© â€" President of France
RenÃ© Viviani â€" Prime Minister of France (13 June 1914 â€" 29 October 1915)
Aristide Briand â€" Prime Minister of France (29 October 1915 â€" 20 March 1917)
Alexandre Ribot â€" Prime Minister of France (20 March 1917 â€" 12 September 1917)
Paul PainlevÃ© â€" Prime Minister of France (12 September 1917 â€" 16 November 1917)
Georges Clemenceau â€" Prime Minister of France (From 16 November 1917)
Divisional General / Marshal Joseph Joffre â€" Commander-in-Chief of the French Army (3 August 1914 â€" 13 December 1916)
Divisional General Robert Nivelle â€" Commander-in-Chief of the French Army (13 December 1916 â€" April 1917)
Divisional General / Marshal Philippe PÃ©tain â€" Commander-in-Chief of the French Army (April 1917 â€" 11 November 1918)
Divisional General / Marshal Ferdinand Foch â€" Supreme Allied Commander (26 March 1918 â€" 11 November 1918)
Divisional General Maurice Sarrail â€" Commander of the Allied armies at Salonika Front (1915 â€" 1917)
Army General Adolphe Guillaumat â€" Commander of the Allied armies at Salonika Front (1917 â€" 1918)
Divisional General / Marshal Louis Franchet d'EspÃ¨rey â€" Commander of the Allied armies at Salonika Front (1918)
Brigadier General Milan Rastislav Å tefÃ¡nik â€" General of French Army, Commander of Czechoslovak Legions

British Empire

George V â€" King of the United Kingdom, Emperor of India
H. H. Asquith â€" Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (Until 5 December 1916)
David Lloyd George â€" Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (From 7 December 1916)
Field Marshal Horatio Herbert Kitchener â€" Secretary of State for War (5 August 1914 â€" 5 June 1916)
General William Robertson â€" Chief of the Imperial General Staff (23 December 1915 â€" February 1918)
General Henry Wilson â€" Chief of the Imperial General Staff (February 1918 â€" February 1922)
General John French â€" Commander-in-Chief of the British Expeditionary Force (4 August 1914 â€" 15 December 1915)
General / Field Marshal Douglas Haig â€" Commander-in-Chief of the British Expeditionary Force (15 December 1915 â€" 11 November 1918)
General Hugh Trenchard â€" Commander of Royal Flying Corps â€" (August 1915 â€" January 1918)
Winston Churchill â€" First Lord of the Admiralty â€" (1911 â€" May 1915)
Arthur Balfour- First Lord of the Admiralty â€" (May 1915 â€" December 1916)
Edward Carson â€" First Lord of the Admiralty â€" (10 December 1916 â€" 17 July 1917)
Eric Geddes â€" First Lord of the Admiralty â€" (July 1917 â€" January 1919)
Admiral of the Fleet John "Jackie" Fisher â€" First Sea Lord â€" (1914 â€" May 1915)
Admiral Henry Jackson â€" First Sea Lord â€" (May 1915 â€" November 1916)
Admiral John Jellicoe â€" Commander of the Grand Fleet (August 1914 â€" November 1916); First Sea Lord (November 1916 â€" December 1917)
Admiral Rosslyn Wemyss â€" First Sea Lord (December 1917 â€" November 1919)
Admiral David Beatty â€" Commander of the Grand Fleet (November 1916 â€" April 1919)
General Edmund Allenby â€" Commander of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force (June 1917 â€" November 1918)

Dominion of Canada

Robert Borden â€" Prime Minister of Canada (1914â€"18)
Sam Hughes â€" Minister of Militia and Defence (1914 â€" January 1915)
Joseph Flavelle- Chairman of Imperial Munitions Board (1915â€"19)
General Julian Byng (June 1916 â€" June 1917) Canadian Corps commander
Lieutenant-General Edwin Alderson â€" Commander of the unified Canadian Corps of the Canadian Expeditionary Force (26 January 1915 â€" September 1915)
General Arthur Currie â€" Commander of the unified Canadian Corps of the Canadian Expeditionary Force (June 1917 â€")

Commonwealth of Australia

Joseph Cook â€" Prime Minister of Australia (until 17 September 1914)
Andrew Fisher â€" Prime Minister of Australia (17 September 1914 â€" 27 October 1915)
Billy Hughes â€" Prime Minister of Australia (from 27 October 1915)
General John Monash â€" Commander of the Australian Corps (all five Australian infantry divisions serving on the Western Front) (May 1918 â€")
Major General William Holmes â€" Commander of the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force (August 1914 â€" February 1915)
General Harry Chauvel â€" Commander of Desert Mounted Corps (Sinai and Palestine) (August 1917 â€")

British India

Charles Hardinge, 1st Baron Hardinge of Penshurst â€" Viceroy of India 1910â€"1916
Frederic Thesiger, 1st Viscount Chelmsford â€" Viceroy of India 1916â€"1921
Austen Chamberlain â€" Secretary of State for India
Lieutenant-General John Nixon commander of the British Indian Army (active in the Middle East)

Union of South Africa

General Louis Botha â€" Prime Minister of South Africa
General Jan Smuts â€" Led forces in South-West Africa Campaign and East African Campaign, later member of the Imperial War Cabinet

New Zealand

William Massey â€" Prime Minister of New Zealand
General Sir Alexander Godley â€" Commandant of New Zealand Military Forces (to October 1914); Commander of the New Zealand Expeditionary Force
Major General Sir Alfred William Robin â€" Quartermaster-General and Commandant of New Zealand Military Forces (from October 1914)

Dominion of Newfoundland

Sir Edward Morris â€" Prime Minister of Newfoundland (1909â€"1917)
Sir John Crosbie â€" Prime Minister of Newfoundland (1917â€"1918)
Sir William Lloyd â€" Prime Minister of Newfoundland (1918â€"1919)